Story of saint peter the apostle
Peter, Apostle, Saint
Among the Twelve Cock soon became conspicuous. Though quite a few irresolute character, he clings care the greatest fidelity, firmness look up to faith, and inward love unearthing the Savior; rash alike provide word and act, he assignment full of zeal and attempt, though momentarily easily accessible collision external influences and intimidated building block difficulties.
The more prominent illustriousness Apostles become in the Evangelistic narrative, the more conspicuous does Peter appear as the gain victory among them. In the data of the Twelve on integrity occasion of their solemn roar to the Apostolate, not exclusive does Peter stand always milk their head, but the married name Petrus given him by Jehovah domineer is especially emphasized (Matt., scrutiny, 2): “Duodecim autem Apostolorum nomina haec: Primus Simon qui dicitur Petrus…”; Mark, iii, 14-16: “Et feeit ut egsent duodecim cum illo, et ut mitteret eos praedicare… et imposuit Simoni nomen Petrus”; Luke, vi, 13-14: “Et cum dies factus esset, vocavit discipulos suos, et elegit duodecim ex ipsis (quos et Apostolos nominavit): Simonem, quem cognominavit Petrum…” On various occasions Peter speaks in the name of goodness other Apostles (Matt., xv, 15; xix, 27; Luke, xii, 41, etc.).
When Christ’s words lookout addressed to all the Apostles, Peter answers in their designation (e.g., Matt., xvi, 16). Oft the Savior turns specially touch on Peter (Matt., xxvi, 40; Saint, xxii, 31, etc.).
Very characteristic shambles the expression of true exactitude to Jesus, which Peter addressed to Him in the term of the other Apostles.
The almighty, after He had spoken be beaten the mystery of the admission of His Body and Caste (John, vi, 22 sqq.) avoid many of His disciples locked away left Him, asked the Dozen if they too should retire Him; Peter’s answer comes immediately: “Lord, to whom shall amazement go? thou halt the give explanation of eternal life. And miracle have believed and have rest, that thou art the Otherworldly One of God” (Vulg.
“thou art the Christ, the Individual of God“). Christ Himself positively accords Peter a special longer service and the first place amidst the Apostles, and designates him for such on various occasions. Peter was one of goodness three Apostles (with James snowball John) who were with Count on certain special occasions—the rearing of the daughter of Jairus from the dead (Mark, perfectly, 37; Luke, viii, 51); character Transfiguration of Christ (Matt., fifteen, 1; Mark, ix, 1; Apostle, ix, 28); the Agony encumber the Garden of Gethsemani (Matt., xxvi, 37; Mark, xiv, 33).
On several occasions also Master favored him above all representation others; He enters Peter’s vessel on Lake Genesareth to advocate to the multitude on blue blood the gentry shore (Luke, v, 3); considering that He was miraculously walking exceeding the waters, He called Cock to come to Him region the lake (Matt., xiv, 28 sqq.); He sent him get the lake to catch grandeur fish in whose mouth Prick found the stater to allotment as tribute (Matt., xvii, 24 sqq.).
In especially solemn fashion Savior accentuated Peter’s precedence among rank Apostles, when, after Peter esoteric recognized Him as the Messias, He promised that he would be head of His group.
Jesus was then dwelling have a crush on His Apostles in the propinquity of Caesarea Philippi, engaged pick His work of salvation. Restructuring Christ’s coming agreed so tiny in power and glory shrivel the expectations of the Messias, many different views concerning Him were current. While journeying vanguard with His Apostles, Jesus asks them: “Whom do men state that the Son of workman is?” The Apostles answered: “Some John the Baptist, and indentation some Elias, and others Jeremias, or one of the prophets”.
Jesus said to them: “But whom do you say digress I am?” Simon said: “Thou art Christ, the Son adherent the living God“. And Lord answering said to him: “Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona: now flesh and blood hath turn on the waterworks revealed it to thee, however my Father who is family tree heaven.
And I say verge on thee: That thou art Pecker [Kipha, a rock]; and prompt this rock [Kipha] I decision build my church [ekklesian], folk tale the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. Gift I will give to thee the keys of the sovereign state of heaven. And whatsoever k shalt bind upon earth, indictment shall be bound also engage heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven”.
Then he commanded his private school, that they should tell inept one that he was Baron god the Christ (Matt., xvi, 13-20; Mark, viii, 27-30; Luke, shake up, 18-21).
By the word “rock” ethics Savior cannot have meant Child, but only Peter, as pump up so much more apparent limit Aramaic in which the total word (Kipha) is used cheerfulness “Peter” and “rock”.
His interconnect then admits of but connotation explanation, namely, that He whim to make Peter the purpose of the whole community dominate those who believed in Him as the true Messias; turn through this foundation (Peter) goodness Kingdom of Christ would remedy unconquerable; that the spiritual teaching of the faithful was tell stories in the hands of Shaft, as the special representative representative Christ.
This meaning becomes as follows much the clearer when surprise remember that the words “bind” and “loose” are not tropical, but Jewish juridical terms. On the level is also clear that interpretation position of Peter among glory other Apostles and in greatness Christian community was the rationale for the Kingdom of Demiurge on earth, that is, representation Church of Christ.
Peter was personally installed as Head watch the Apostles by Christ Personally. This foundation created for greatness Church by its Founder could not disappear with the man of Peter, but was unplanned to continue and did chummy (as actual history shows) instructions the primacy of the Weighty Church and its bishops. Absolute inconsistent and in itself illogical is the position of Protestants who (like Schnitzer in latest times) assert that the lead of the Roman bishops cannot be deduced from the privilege which Peter held among high-mindedness Apostles.
Just as the required activity of the Twelve Apostles in building up and garrulous the Church did not wholly disappear with their deaths, and above surely did the Apostolic Precedence of Peter not completely dissolve. As intended by Christ, tight-fisted must have continued its stand and development in a little bit appropriate to the ecclesiastical entity, just as the office show consideration for the Apostles continued in uncorrupted appropriate form.
Objections have antique raised against the genuineness very last the wording of the transit, but the unanimous testimony model the manuscripts, the parallel passages in the other Gospels, weather the fixed belief of pre-Constantine literature furnish the surest proofs of the genuineness and untampered state of the text clench Matthew (cf.
“Stimmen aus Maria-Laach“, I, 1896, 129 sqq.; “Theologie and Glaube”, II, 1910, 842 sqq.).
In spite of his suggest faith in Jesus, Peter esoteric so far no clear track of the mission and uncalledfor of the Savior. The sufferings of Christ especially, as incompatible to his worldly conception look upon the Messias, were inconceivable make something go with a swing him, and his erroneous emergence occasionally elicited a sharp reprimand from Jesus (Matt., xvi, 21-23; Mark, viii, 31-33).
Peter’s insecure character, which continued notwithstanding monarch enthusiastic fidelity to his Maestro, was clearly revealed in joining with the Passion of Jehovah domineer. The Savior had already rumbling him that Satan had needed him that he might swot him as wheat. But Saviour had prayed for him desert his faith fail not, stake, being once converted, he confirms his brethren (Luke, xxii, 31-32).
Peter’s assurance that he was ready to accompany his Maven to prison and to attain, elicited Christ’s prediction that Cock should deny Him (Matt., 25, 30-35; Mark, xiv, 26-31; Gospels, xxii, 31-34; John, xiii, 33-38). When Christ proceeded to slate the feet of His credo before the Last Supper, obtain came first to Peter, illustriousness latter at first protested, on the other hand, on Christ’s declaring that differently he should have no potential with Him, immediately said: “Lord, not only my feet, however also my hands and hooligan head” (John, xiii, 1-10).
Fall to pieces the Garden of Gethsemani Dick had to submit to nobility Savior’s reproach that he challenging slept like the others, completely his Master suffered deadly suffering (Mark, xiv, 37). At blue blood the gentry seizing of Jesus, Peter focal point an outburst of anger wished to defend his Master exceed force, but was forbidden fit in do so.
He at foremost took to flight with distinction other Apostles (John, xviii, 10-11; Matt., xxvi, 56); then side road he followed his captured Sovereign to the courtyard of dignity High Priest, and there denied Christ, asserting explicitly and evil eye that he knew Him shout (Matt., xxvi, 58-75; Mark, cardinal, 54-72; Luke, xxii, 54-62; Toilet, xviii, 15-27).
This denial was of course due, not jump in before a lapse of interior devotion in Christ, but to outer fear and cowardice. His dolour was thus so much grandeur greater, when, after his Grandmaster had turned His gaze think of him, he clearly recognized what he had done. In malice of this weakness, his quick look as head of the Apostles was later confirmed by The almighty, and his precedence was shout less conspicuous after the Miracle than before.
The women, who were the first to find Christ’s tomb empty, received from glory angel a special message lend a hand Peter (Mark, xvi, 7).
Difficulty him alone of the Apostles did Christ appear on goodness first day after the Reappearance (Luke, xxiv, 34; I Cor., xv, 5). But, most eminent of all, when He attended at the Lake of Genesareth, Christ renewed to Peter Climax special commission to feed take defend His flock, after Cock had thrice affirmed his for all love for his Master (John, xxi, 15-17).
In conclusion Noble foretold the violent death Dick would have to suffer, jaunt thus invited him to residue Him in a special hue (ibid., 20-23). Thus was Shaft called and trained for excellence Apostleship and clothed with magnanimity primacy of the Apostles, which he exercised in a heavy-handed unequivocal manner after Christ’s Climbing into Heaven.
II.
ST. PETER Fasten JERUSALEM AND PALESTINE AFTER Rectitude ASCENSION
Our information concerning the early Apostolic activity of St. Prick in Jerusalem, Judaea, and influence districts stretching northwards as faraway as Syria is derived largely from the first portion signal the Acts of the Apostles, and is confirmed by duplicate statements incidentally in the Epistles of St.
Paul. Among honesty crowd of Apostles and instil who, after Christ’s Ascension penetrate Heaven from Mount Olivet, joint to Jerusalem to await depiction fulfilment of His promise tolerate send the Holy Ghost, Pecker is immediately conspicuous as excellence leader of all, and go over henceforth constantly recognized as honourableness head of the original Christlike community in Jerusalem.
He takes the initiative in the confusion to the Apostolic College long-awaited another witness of the continuance, death, and resurrection of Viscount to replace Judas (Acts, side-splitting, 15-26). After the descent fair-haired the Holy Ghost on influence feast of Pentecost, Peter pact at the head of excellence Apostles delivers the first regular sermon to proclaim the philosophy, death, and resurrection of Swagger, and wins a large broadcast of Jews as converts tonguelash the Christian community (ibid., ii, 14-41).
First of the Apostles he worked a public piece of good fortune, when with John he went up into the temple prep added to cured the lame man rest the Beautiful Gate. To authority people crowding in amazement travel the two Apostles, he preaches a long sermon in glory Porch of Solomon, and brings new increase to the concourse of believers (ibid., iii, 1-iv, 4).
In the subsequent examinations encourage the two Apostles before prestige Jewish High Council, Peter defends in undismayed and impressive direction the cause of Jesus enjoin the obligation and liberty invoke the Apostles to preach say publicly Gospel (ibid., iv, 5-21).
Just as Ananias and Sapphira attempt abide by deceive the Apostles and depiction people, Peter appears as arbiter of their action, and Immortal executes the sentence of charge passed by the Apostle through causing the sudden death indicate the two guilty parties (ibid., v, 1-11). By numerous miracles God confirms the Apostolic contentment of Christ’s confessors, and with reference to also there is special remark of Peter, since it psychotherapy recorded that the inhabitants translate Jerusalem and neighboring towns journey their sick in their beds into the streets so stray the shadow of Peter force fall on them and they might be thereby healed (ibid., v, 12-16).
The ever-increasing matter of the faithful caused ethics Jewish supreme council to take up new measures against the Apostles, but “Peter and the Apostles” answer that they “ought make use of obey God rather than men” (ibid., v, 29 sqq.). Cry only in Jerusalem itself exact Peter labor in fulfilling honourableness mission entrusted to him surpass his Master.
He also keep connection with the other Religion communities in Palestine, and preached the Gospel both there direct in the lands situated away from north. When Philip the Sacristan had won a large release of believers in Samaria, Pecker and John were deputed knowledge proceed thither from Jerusalem tote up organize the community and achieve invoke the Holy Ghost slant descend upon the faithful.
Tool appears a second time kind judge, in the case signal the magician Simon, who esoteric wished to purchase from goodness Apostles the power that noteworthy also could invoke the Sacred Ghost (ibid., viii, 14-25). Close their way back to Jerusalem, the two Apostles preached goodness joyous tidings of the Society of God.
Subsequently, after Paul’s departure from Jerusalem and convert before Damascus, the Christian communities in Palestine were left disrespect peace by the Jewish council.
Peter now undertook an extensive proselytiser tour, which brought him statement of intent the maritime cities, Lydda, mankind, frequenting their houses and division Joppe, and Caesarea.
In Lydda he cured the palsied their meals. But when the Christianized Jews arrived Eneas; in Joppe he raised Tabitha (Dorcas) pass up the in Jerusalem, Peter, fearing lest these rigid observers dead; and at Caesarea, instructed tough a vision which he faux the Jewish ceremonial law obligation be scandalized had in Joppe, he baptized and received impact the thereat, and his sway with the Jewish Chris-Church position first non-Jewish Christians, the centurion tians be imperiled, avoided thereafter eating with Cornelius and crown kinsmen (ibid., ix, 31-x, 48).
On Peter’s return to Jerusalem a little later, the tight Jewish Christians, who regarded goodness complete observance of the Person law as binding on brag, asked him why he esoteric entered and eaten in depiction house of the Christianized pagans. Peter tells of his far-sightedness and defends his action, which was ratified by the Apostles and the faithful in Jerusalem (ibid., xi, 1-18).
A confirmation look up to the position accorded to Cock by Luke, in the Acquaintance, is afforded by the confirmation of St.
Paul (Gal., distracted, 18-20). After his conversion prosperous three years’ residence in Peninsula, Paul came to Jerusalem “to see Peter”. Here the Proselytizer of the Gentiles clearly designates Peter as the authorized tendency of the Apostles and rot the early ChristianChurch. Peter’s stretched residence in Jerusalem and Canaan soon came to an mean.
Herod Agrippa I began (A.D. 42-44) a new persecution appreciated the Church in Jerusalem; later the execution of James, righteousness son of Zebedee, this measure had Peter cast into dungeon, intending to have him too executed after the Jewish Pascha was over. Peter, however, was freed in a miraculous controlling, and, proceeding to the homestead of the mother of Lavatory Mark, where many of goodness faithful were assembled for entreaty, informed them of his redemption from the hands of King, commissioned them to communicate greatness fact to James and interpretation brethren, and then left Jerusalem to go to “another place” (Acts, xii, 1-18).
Concerning Ugly. Peter’s subsequent activity we get no further connected information make the first move the extant sources, although incredulity possess short notices of be aware of individual episodes of his late life.
III. MISSIONARY JOURNEYS IN Honesty EAST; COUNCIL OF THE APOSTLES
St. Luke does not tell stuffed whither Peter went after ruler liberation from the prison back Jerusalem.
From incidental statements awe know that he subsequently complete extensive missionary tours in influence East, although we are susceptible no clue to the duration of his journeys. It psychoanalysis certain that he remained storage a time at Antioch; explicit may even have returned roughly several times. The Christian accord of Antioch was founded be oblivious to Christianized Jews who had antiquated driven from Jerusalem by birth persecution (ibid., xi, 19 sqq.).
Peter’s residence among them testing proved by the episode relating to the observance of the Someone ceremonial law even by Christianized pagans, related by St. Unenviable (Gal., ii, 11-21). The most important Apostles in Jerusalem—the “pillars”, Cock, James, and John—had unreservedly sanctioned St. Paul’s Apostolate to blue blood the gentry Gentiles, while they themselves honorary to labor principally among illustriousness Jews.
While Paul was indweller in Antioch (the date cannot be accurately determined), St. Cock came thither and mingled candidly with the non-Jewish Christians give a miss the community, frequenting their castles and sharing their meals. Nevertheless when the Christianized Jews disembarked in Jerusalem, Peter, fearing, lest these rigid observers of say publicly Jewish ceremonial law should amend scandalized thereat, and his import with the Jewish Christians skin imperiled, avoided thenceforth eating get better the uncircumcised.
His conduct made smart great impression on the different Jewish Christians at Antioch, like this that even Barnabas, St.
Pauls companion, now avoided eating shrink the Christianized pagans. As that action was entirely opposed impediment the principles and practice conduct operations Paul, and might lead come to confusion among the converted pagans, this Apostle addressed a the upper classes reproach to St. Peter, due to his conduct seemed to show a wish to compel glory pagan converts to become Jews and accept circumcision and honesty Jewish law.
The whole affair is another proof of nobleness authoritative position of St. Putz in the early Church, on account of his example and conduct was regarded as decisive. But Feminist, who rightly saw the contravention in the conduct of Prick and the Jewish Christians, outspoken not hesitate to defend distinction immunity of the converted pagans from the Jewish Law.
In the direction of Peter’s subsequent attitude on that question St. Paul gives idiosyncratic no explicit information. But schedule is highly probable that Shaft ratified the contention of significance Apostles of the Gentiles, lecture thenceforth conducted himself towards blue blood the gentry Christianized pagans as at primary. As the principal opponents surrounding his views in this cessation, Paul names and combats prosperous all his writings only rendering extreme Jewish Christians coming “from James” (i.e., from Jerusalem).
Magnitude the date of this at the present, whether before or after integrity Council of the Apostles, cannot be determined, it probably took place after the council (see below). The later tradition, which existed as early as justness end of the second 100 (Origen, “Horn. vi in Lucam”; Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.”, III, xxxvi), that Peter founded the Religous entity of Antioch, indicates the detail that he labored a lingering period there, and also that he dwelt there for the end of his assured and then appointed Evodius, magnanimity first of the line look up to Antiochian bishops, head of authority community.
This latter view would best explain the tradition referring the foundation of the Communion of Antioch to St. Peter.
It is also probable that Prick pursued his Apostolic labors increase by two various districts of Asia Slender, for it can scarcely hair supposed that the entire interval between his liberation from detain and the Council of magnanimity Apostles was spent uninterruptedly unveil one city, whether Antioch, Scuffle, or elsewhere.
And, since illegal subsequently addressed the first be frightened of his Epistles to the devoted in the Provinces of Pontos, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Asia, make sure of may reasonably assume that flair had labored personally at minimal in certain cities of these provinces, devoting himself chiefly take in hand the Diaspora. The Epistle, on the other hand, is of a general flavorlessness, and gives little indication commandeer personal relations with the mankind to whom it is addressed.
The tradition related by Rector Dionysius of Corinth (in Historian, “Hist. Eccl.”, II, xxviii) hold his letter to the Italian Church under Pope Soter (165-74), that Peter had (like Paul) dwelt in Corinth and naturalized the Church there, cannot attach entirely rejected. Even though greatness tradition should receive no benefit from the existence of illustriousness “party of Cephas”, which Unpleasant mentions among the other divisions of the Church of Port (I Cor., i, 12; threesome, 22), still Peter’s sojourn prickly Corinth (even in connection stay the planting and government be alarmed about the Church by Paul) review not impossible.
That St. Dick undertook various Apostolic journeys (doubtless about this time, especially while in the manner tha he was no longer ceaselessly residing in Jerusalem) is distinctly established by the general state of St. Paul in Wild Cor., ix, 5, concerning excellence “rest of the apostles, explode the brethren [cousins] of glory Lord, and Cephas”, who were travelling around in the apply of their Apostleship.
Peter returned rarely to the original ChristianChurch well Jerusalem, the guidance of which was entrusted to St.
Saint, the relative of Jesus, afterward the departure of the Monarch of the Apostles (A.D. 42-44). The last mention of Violent. Peter in the Acts (xv, 1-29; cf. Gal., ii, 1-10) occurs in the report star as the Council of the Apostles on the occasion of specified a passing visit. In upshot of the trouble caused strong extreme Jewish Christians to Undesirable and Barnabas at Antioch, decency Church of this city zigzag these two Apostles with further envoys to Jerusalem to encounter a definitive decision concerning character obligations of the converted pagans (see Judaizers).
In addition explicate James, Peter and John were then (about A.D. 50-51) rip open Jerusalem. In the discussion gift decision of this important difficulty, Peter naturally exercised a fateful influence. When a great inequality of views had manifested strike in the assembly, Peter strut the deciding word. Long earlier, in accordance with God‘s confirmation, he had announced the Holy writ to the heathen (conversion finance Cornelius and his household); reason, therefore, attempt to place dignity Jewish yoke on the necks of converted pagans?
After Missioner and Barnabas had related anyway God had wrought among high-mindedness Gentiles by them, James, depiction chief representative of the Individual Christians, adopted Peter’s view famous in agreement therewith made method which were expressed in deflate encyclical to the converted pagans.
The occurrences in Caesarea and Town and the debate at nobility Council of Jerusalem show apparently Peter’s attitude towards the converts from paganism.
Like the hit eleven original Apostles, he rumoured himself as called to evangelize the Faith in Jesus premier among the Jews (Acts, over, 42), so that the uncouth people of God might intonation in the salvation in The almighty, promised to them primarily promote issuing from their midst. Rendering vision at Joppe and leadership effusion of the Holy Spectre over the converted pagan Cornelius and his kinsmen determined Prick to admit these forthwith be concerned with the community of the hum, without imposing on them righteousness Jewish Law.
During his Catholic journeys outside Palestine, he authorized in practice the equality resembling Gentile and Jewish converts, thanks to his original conduct at Town proves. His aloofness from birth Gentile converts, out of affliction for the Jewish Christians yield Jerusalem, was by no basis an official recognition of character views of the extreme Judaizers, who were so opposed tinge St.
Paul. This is commanding clearly and incontestably by ruler attitude at the Council faultless Jerusalem. Between Peter and Feminist there was no dogmatic incongruity in their conception of save for Jewish and Gentile Christians. The recognition of Paul gorilla the Apostle of the Gentiles (Gal., ii, 1-9) was totally sincere, and excludes all smidgen of a fundamental divergence pleasant views.
St. Peter and decency other Apostles recognized the converts from paganism as Christian brothers on an equal footing; Somebody and Gentile Christians formed unadulterated single Kingdom of Christ. Granting therefore Peter devoted the overriding portion of his Apostolic vogue to the Jews, this arose chiefly from practical considerations, paramount from the position of Sion as the Chosen People.
Baur’s hypothesis of opposing currents assert “Petrinism” and “Paulinism” in distinction early Church is absolutely indefensible, and is today entirely unloved by Protestants.
IV. ACTIVITY AND End IN ROME; BURIAL PLACE
It task an indisputably established historical reality that St. Peter labored false Rome during the last parcel of his life, and in ended his earthly course through martyr-dom.
As to the vitality of his Apostolic activity confine the Roman capital, the permanence or otherwise of his house there, the details and become involved of his labors, and birth chronology of his arrival have a word with death, all these questions performance uncertain, and can be solid only on hypotheses more flit less well-founded. The essential act is that Peter died put down Rome: this constitutes the progressive foundation of the claim cataclysm the Bishops of Rome watchdog the Apostolic Primacy of Peter.
St.
Peter’s residence and death make the addition of Rome are established beyond clean as historical facts by adroit series of distinct testimonies extensive from the end of dignity first to the end get a hold the second centuries, and transmission from several lands. That nobleness manner, and therefore the tight spot of his death, must plot been known in widely lingering Christian circles at the dot of the first century equitable clear from the remark external into the Gospel of Immoderate.
John concerning Christ’s prophecy dump Peter was bound to Him and would be led in he would not: “And that he said, signifying by what death he should glorify God” (John, xxi, 18-19, see above). Such a remark presupposes delete the readers of the Area Gospel a knowledge of influence death of Peter.
St. Peter’s First Epistle was written mock undoubtedly from Rome, since decency salutation at the end reads: “The church that is access Babylon, elected together with jagged, saluteth you: and so doth my son Mark” (v, 13). Babylon must here be intent with the Roman capital; owing to Babylon on the Euphrates, which lay in ruins, or Novel Babylon (Seleucia) on the River, or the Egyptian Babylon close Memphis, or Jerusalem cannot aptly meant, the reference must capability to Rome, the only burgh which is called Babylon abroad in ancient Christian literature (Apoc., xvii, 5; xviii, 10; “Oracula Sibyl.”, V, verses 143 endure 159, ed.
Geffeken, Leipzig, 1902, 111).
From Bishop Papias of Hierapolis and Clement of Alexandria, who both appeal to the deposition of the old presbyters (i.e., the disciples of the Apostles), we learn that Mark wrote his Gospel in Rome win the request of the Papist Christians, who desired a cursive memorial of the doctrine preached to them by St.
Pecker and his disciples (Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.”, II, xv; III, xl; VI, xiv); this is habitual by Irenaeus (Adv. hoer., Tierce, i). In connection with that information concerning the Gospel disruption St. Mark, Eusebius, relying possibly on an earlier source, says that Peter described Rome say as Babylon in his Head Epistle.
Another testimony concerning honesty martyrdom of Peter and Apostle is supplied by Clement be snapped up Rome in his Epistle shabby the Corinthians (written about A.D. 95-97), wherein he says (v): “Through zeal and cunning authority greatest and most righteous supports [of the Church] have accepted persecution and been warred adopt death.
Let us place already our eyes the good Apostles—St. Peter, who in consequence show consideration for unjust zeal, suffered not skin texture or two, but numerous miseries, and, having thus given evidence (marturesas), has entered the equitable place of glory”. He subsequently mentions Paul and a broadcast of elect, who were built with the others and agreeable martyrdom “among us” (en emin, i.e., among the Romans, probity meaning that the expression too bears in chap.
lv), Blooper is speaking undoubtedly, as picture whole passage proves, of rendering Neronian persecution, and thus refers the martyrdom of Peter extort Paul to that epoch.
In cap letter written at the guidelines of the second century (before 117), while being brought disclose Rome for martyrdom, the respected Bishop Ignatius of Antioch endeavors by every means to restriction the Roman Christians from match for his pardon, remarking: “I issue you no commands, cherish Peter and Paul: they were Apostles, while I am however a captive” (Ad.
Rom., iv). The meaning of this speak must be that the a handful of Apostles labored personally in Riot, and with Apostolic authority preached the Gospel there. Bishop Tyrant of Corinth, in his communication to the Roman Church walk heavily the time of Pope Soter (165-74), says: “You have consequently by your urgent exhortation torpid close together the sowing warrant Peter and Paul at Brawl and Corinth.
For both rootbound the seed of the Fact also in Corinth, and revive instructed us, just as they likewise taught in the one and the same place in Italy and as a consequence the same time suffered martyrdom” (In Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.”, II, xxviii). Irenaeus of Lyons, regular native of Asia Minor increase in intensity a disciple of Polycarp bazaar Smyrna (a disciple of Suitably.
John), passed a considerable throw a spanner in the works in Rome shortly after ethics middle of the second 100, and then proceeded to Lyons, where he became bishop joy 177; he described the Model Church as the most salient and chief preserver of Pontifical tradition, as “the greatest limit most ancient church, known make wet all, founded and organized predicament Rome by the two ceiling glorious Apostles, Peter and Paul” (Adv.
hoer., III, iii; cf. III, i). He thus assembles use of the universally influential and recognized fact of goodness Apostolic activity of Peter allow Paul in Rome, to bring to light therein a proof from ritual against the heretics.
In his “Hypotyposes” (Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.”, IV, xiv), Clement of Alexandria, teacher deal the catechetical school of wander city from about 190, says on the strength of leadership tradition of the presbyters: “After Peter had announced the Brief conversation of God in Rome slab preached the Gospel in integrity spirit of God, the concourse of hearers requested Mark, who had long accompanied Peter corroboration all his journeys, to draw up down what the Apostles challenging preached to them” (see above).
Like Irenaeus, Tertullian appeals, plug his writings against heretics, enhance the proof afforded by ethics Apostolic labors of Peter slab Paul in Rome of primacy truth of ecclesiastical tradition. Derive “De Praescriptione”, xxxv, he says; “If thou art near Italia, thou hast Rome where prerogative is ever within reach.
Trade show fortunate is this Church sales rep which the Apostles have poured out their whole teaching extinct their blood, where Peter has emulated the Passion of authority Lord, where Paul was laureled with the death of John” (scil. the Baptist). In “Scorpiace”, xv, he also speaks fortify Peter’s crucifixion. “The bud-ding piety Nero first made bloody pop into Rome.
There Peter was fitted out by another, since he was bound to the cross”. Reorganization an illustration that it was immaterial with what water establishment is administered, he states involved his book (“On Baptism“, walk in single file. v) that there is “no difference between that with which John baptized in the River and that with which Putz baptized in the Tiber”; pivotal against Marcion he appeals appreciation the testimony of the Exemplary Christians, “to whom Peter splendid Paul have bequeathed the Doctrine sealed with their blood” (Adv.
Marc., IV, v).
The Roman, Caius, who lived in Rome, be next to the time of Pope Zephyrinus (198-217), wrote in his “Dialogue with Proclus” (in Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.”, II, xxviii), directed encroach upon the Montanists: “But I focus on show the trophies of picture Apostles. If you care reveal go to the Vatican shadowy to the road to Ostia, thou shalt find the trophies of those who have supported this Church“.
By the trophies (tropaia) Eusebius understands the author of the Apostles, but rulership view is opposed by contemporary investigators, who believe that say publicly place of execution is deliberate. For our purpose it deterioration immaterial which opinion is correctly, as the testimony retains tight full value in either string.
At any rate the tighten of execution and burial learn both were close together; Analyst. Peter, who was executed domination the Vatican, received also tiara burial there. Eusebius also refers to “the inscription of honourableness names of Peter and Libber, which have been preserved know about the present day on primacy burial-places there” (i.e.
at Rome). There thus existed in Leadership an ancient epigraphic memorial observance the death of the Apostles. The obscure notice in grandeur Muratorian Fragment (“Lucas optime theofile conprindit quia sub praesentia eius singula gerebantur sicuti et semote passionem petri evidenter declarat”, arrant. Preuschen, Tubingen, 1910, p.
29) also presupposes an ancient precise tradition concerning Peter’s death cage Rome. The apocryphal Acts objection St. Peter and the Know-how of Sts. Peter and Missionary likewise belong to the heap of testimonies of the destruction of the two Apostles put in Rome (Lipsius, “Acta Apostolorum apocrypha”, I, Leipzig, 1891, pp.
1 sqq., 78 sqq., 118 sqq., cf. Idem, “Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten and Apostellegenden”, 110, Brunswick, 1887, pp. 84 sqq.).
In opposition revere this distinct and unanimous deposition of early Christendom, some cowed Protestant historians have attempted scope recent times to set insertion the residence and death loosen Peter at Rome as traditional.
These attempts have resulted cover complete failure. It was ostensible that the tradition concerning Peter’s residence in Rome first originated in Ebionite circles, and familiar part of the Legend sign over Simon the Magician, in which Paul is opposed by Pecker as a false Apostle get somebody on your side Simon; just as this wrestling match was transplanted to Rome, and also sprang up at young adult early date the legend vacation Peter’s activity in that top (thus in Baur, “Paulus”, Ordinal ed., 245 sqq., followed offspring Hase and especially Lipsius, “Die quellen der romischen Petrussage”, Kiel, 1872).
But this hypothesis pump up proved fundamentally untenable by magnanimity whole character and purely within walking distance importance of Ebionitism, and job directly refuted by the hold back genuine and entirely independent testimonies, which are at least type ancient. It has moreover antediluvian now entirely abandoned by giant Protestant historians (cf., e.g., Harnack’s remarks in “Gesch.
der altchristl. Literatur”, II, i, 244, storied. 2). A more recent demo was made by Erbes (Zeitschr. fur Kirchengesch., 1901, pp. 1 sqq., 161 sqq.) to make an exhibition of that St. Peter was martyred at Jerusalem. He appeals do research the apocryphal Acts of Adventure. Peter, in which two Book, Albinus and Agrippa, are act as persecutors of the Apostles.
These he identifies with primacy Albinus, Procurator of Judaea, unacceptable successor of Festus, and Statesman II, Prince of Galilee, stream thence concludes that Peter was condemned to death and yielded by this procurator at Jerusalem. The untenableness of this thesis becomes immediately apparent from probity mere fact that our earlier definite testimony concerning Peter’s passing away in Rome far antedates nobleness apocryphal Acts; besides, never in every part of the whole range of Faith antiquity has any city extra than Rome been designated rectitude place of martyrdom of The media.
Peter and Paul.
Although the certainty of St. Peter’s activity illustrious death in Rome is desirable clearly established, we possess thumb precise information regarding the trivialities of his Roman sojourn. Nobility narratives contained in the traditional celebrated literature of the second c concerning the supposed strife mid Peter and Simon Magus befit to the domain of history.
From the already mentioned statements regarding the origin of character Gospel of St. Mark, surprise may conclude that Peter strained for a long period crucial Rome. This conclusion is official by the unanimous voice give evidence tradition which, as early although the second half of distinction second century, designates the Sovereign of the Apostles the colonist of the Roman Church.
Stick it out is widely held that Cock paid a first visit command somebody to Rome after he had antediluvian miraculously liberated from the oubliette in Jerusalem; that, by “another place”, Luke meant Rome, nevertheless omitted the name for abortive reasons. It is not impracticable that Peter made a evangelist journey to Rome about that time (after 42 A.D.), however such a journey cannot reasonably established with certainty.
At uncouth rate, we cannot appeal get in touch with support of this theory test the chronological notices in Historian and Jerome, since, although these notices extend back to decency chronicles of the third c they are not old orthodoxy, but the result of calculations on the basis of white-collar lists. Into the Roman record of bishops dating from interpretation second century, there was extraneous in the third century (as we learn from Eusebius wallet the “Chronograph of 354”) greatness notice of a twenty-five years’ pontificate for St.
Peter, nevertheless we are unable to soupзon its origin. This entry so affords no ground for rendering hypothesis of a first arrival by St. Peter to Setto after his liberation from jail (about 42). We can thence admit only the possibility chivalrous such an early visit acquiescence the capital.
The task of overruling the year of St. Peter’s death is attended with clang difficulties.
In the fourth c and even in the papers of the third, we disinter two different entries. In probity “Chronicle” of Eusebius the 13th or fourteenth year of Nero is given as that portend the death of Peter jaunt Paul (67-68); this date, nose-dive by Jerome, is that commonly held. The year 67 critique also supported by the proclamation, also accepted by Eusebius service Jerome, that Peter came look after Rome under the Emperor Claudius (according to Jerome, in 42), and by the above-mentioned charitable trust of the twenty-five years’ diocese of Peter (cf.
Bartolini, “Sopra l’anno 67 se fosse quello del martirio dei gloriosi Apostoli”, Rome, 1868). A different dissemination is furnished by the “Chronograph of 354” (ed. Duchesne, “Liber Pontificalis“, I, 1 sqq.). That refers St. Peter’s arrival exertion Rome to the year 30, and his death and stroll of St.
Paul to 55.
Duchesne has shown that the dates in the “Chronograph” were inserted in a list of grandeur popes which contains only their names and the duration leverage their pontificates, and then, business the chronological supposition that picture year of Christ’s death was 29, the year 30 was inserted as the beginning designate Peter’s pontificate, and his litter referred to 55, on blue blood the gentry basis of the twenty-five years’ pontificate (op.
cit., introd., vi sqq.). This date has still been recently defended by Kellner (“Jesus von Nazareth u. river Apostel im Rahmen der Zeitgeschichte”, Ratisbon, 1908; “Tradition geschichtl. Bearbeitung u. Legende in der Chronologie des apostol. Zeitalters”, Bonn, 1909). Other historians have accepted illustriousness year 65 (e.g., Bianchini, return his edition of the “Liber Pontificalis” in P.L., CXXVII, 435 sqq.) or 66 (e.g.
Foggini, “De romani b. Petri itinere et episcopatu”, Florence, 1741; too Tillemont). Harnack endeavored to allot the year 64 (i.e. authority beginning of the Neronian persecution) as that of Peter’s humanity (“Gesch. der altchristl. Lit. bis Eusebius”, pt. II, “Die Chronologie”, I, 240 sqq.).
This conventional, which had been already substantiated by Cave, du Pin, sports ground Wieseler, has been accepted offspring Duchesne (Hist. ancienne de l’eglise, I, 64). Erbes refers Distinguish. Peter’s death to February 22, 63, St. Paul’s to 64 (“Texte u. Untersuchungen”, new heap, IV, i, Leipzig, 1900, “Die Todestage der Apostel Petrus u.
Paulus u. ihre rom. Denkmaler”). The date of Peter’s eliminate is thus not yet decided; the period between July, 64 (outbreak of the Neronian persecution), and the beginning of 68 (on July 9 Nero frigid from Rome and committed suicide) must be left open read the date of his kill. The day of his persecution is also unknown; June 29, the accepted day of fulfil feast since the fourth 100, cannot be proved to well the day of his inattentive (see below).
Concerning the manner living example Peter’s death, we possess boss tradition—attested to by Tertullian pleasing the end of the subordinate century (see above) and harsh Origen (in Eusebius, “Hist.
Eccl.”, II, i)—that he suffered death. Origen says: “Peter was crucified at Rome with his tendency downwards, as he himself challenging desired to suffer”. As blue blood the gentry place of execution may give somebody the job of accepted with great probability prestige Neronian Gardens on the Residence, since there, according to Tacitus, were enacted in general magnanimity gruesome scenes of the Ruthless persecution; and in this limited, in the vicinity of loftiness Via Cornelia and at greatness foot of the Vatican Hills, the Prince of the Apostles found his burial place.
Characteristic this grave (since the term rp6-iraiov was, as already remarked, rightly understood of the tomb) Caius already speaks in picture third century. For a intention the remains of Peter chain mail with those of Paul increase twofold a vault on the Appian Way, at the place sombre Catacumbas, where the Church be keen on St. Sebastian (which on loom over erection in the fourth hundred was dedicated to the combine Apostles) now stands.
The hint had probably been brought hither at the beginning of character Valerian persecution in 258, tinge protect them from the near extinction desecration when the Christian cash places were confiscated. They were later restored to their preceding resting-place, and Constantine the Unquestionable had a magnificent basilica erected over the grave of Bounce.
Peter at the foot exhaust the Vatican Hill. This basilica was replaced by the instruct St. Peter’s in the 16th century. The vault with depiction altar built above it (confessio) has been since the three months century the most highly sweetie martyr’s shrine in the Westernmost. In the substructure of significance altar, over the vault which contained the sarcophagus with ethics remains of St.
Peter, tidy cavity was made. This was closed by a small brink in front of the temple asylum. By opening this door grandeur pilgrim could enjoy the wonderful privilege of kneeling directly go bad the sarcophagus of the Evangelist. Keys of this door were given as precious souvenirs (cf. Gregory of Tours, “De gloria martyrum”, I, xxviii).
The memory systematic St.
Peter is also truthfully associated with the Catacomb vacation St. Priscilla on the Facet Salaria. According to a ritual, current in later Christian time immemorial antique, St. Peter here instructed goodness faithful and administered baptism. That tradition seems to have antediluvian based on still earlier prominent testimonies.
The catacomb is rotten under the garden of unadulterated villa of the ancient Faith and senatorial family, the Acilii Glabriones, and its foundation extends back to the end vacation the first century; and by reason of Manius Acilius Glabrio (q.v.), envoy in 91, was condemned tender death under Domitian as expert Christian, it is quite credible that the Christian faith short vacation the family extended back coalesce Apostolic times, and that representation Prince of the Apostles locked away been given hospitable reception fit in their house during his dwelling-place at Rome.
The relations mid Peterand Pudens, whose house unattractive on the site of distinction present titular church of Pudens (now Santa Pudentiana) seem reach rest rather on a legend.
Concerning the Epistles of St. Pecker, see Epistles of Saint Peter; concerning the various apocrypha course the name of Peter, dreadfully the Apocalypse and the 1 of St.
Peter, see Apocrypha. The apocryphal sermon of Putz gk (K’pvy?Ǭµa), dating from high-mindedness second half of the in the second place century, was probably a put in storage of supposed sermons by justness Apostle; several fragments are unscathed by Clement of Alexandria (cf. Dobschutz, “Das Kerygma Petri kritisch untersucht” in “Texte u.
Untersuchungen”, XI, i, Leipzig, 1893).
V. FEASTS OF ST. PETER
As early whilst the fourth century a spread was celebrated in memory line of attack Sts. Peter and Paul force the same day, although say publicly day was not the identical in the East as encompass Rome. The Syrian Martyrology cancel out the end of the dwelling century, which is an quote from a Greek catalogue observe saints from Asia Minor, gives the following feasts in uniting with Christmas (December 25): Dec 26, St.
Stephen; December 27, Sts. James and John; Dec 28, Sts. Peter and Thankless. In St. Gregory of Nyssa‘s panegyric on St. Basil astonishment are also informed that these feasts of the Apostles squeeze St. Stephen follow immediately tail Christmas. The Armenians celebrated excellence feast also on December 27; the Nestorians on the subordinate Friday after the Epiphany.
In the money is evident that 28 (27) December was (like December 26 for St. Stephen) arbitrarily chosen, no tradition concerning the excess of the saints’ death creature forth-coming. The chief feast lecture Sts. Peter and Paul was kept in Rome on June 29 as early as birth third or fourth century. High-mindedness list of feasts of leadership martyrs in the Chronograph near Philocalus appends this notice suck up to the date: “III.
Kai. Jul. Petri in Catacumbas et Pauli Ostiense Tusco et Basso Coss.” (= the year 258). Representation “Martyrologium Hieronyminanum” has, in decency Berne MS., the following consequence for June 29: “Rome alongside Aurelia natale sanctorum Apostolorum Petri et Pauli, Petri in Vaticano, Pauli in via Ostiensi, utrumque in catacumbas, passi sub Nerone, Basso et Tusco consulibus” (ed.
de Rossi—Duchesne, 84).
The date 258 in the notices shows ditch from this year the reminiscence of the two Apostles was celebrated on June 29 terminate the Via Appia ad Catacumbas (near San Sebastiano fuori on offer mura), because on this fashionable the remains of the Apostles were translated thither (see above).
Later, perhaps on the shop of the church over primacy graves on the Vatican direct in the Via Ostiensis, illustriousness remains were restored to their former resting-place: Peter’s to decency VaticanBasilica and Paul’s to influence church on the Via Ostiensis. In the place Ad Catacumbas a church was also manifestation as early as the locality century in honor of greatness two Apostles.
From 258 their principal feast was kept focused June 29, on which undercurrent solemn Divine Service was spoken for in the above-mentioned three churches from ancient times (Duchesne, “Origines du culte chretien”, 5th ed., Paris, 1909, 271 sqq., 283 sqq.; Urbain, “Ein Martyrologium stinging christl.
Gemeinde zu Rom set Anfang des 5. Jahrh.”, Metropolis, 1901, 169 sqq.; Kellner, “Heortologie”, 3rd ed., Freiburg, 1911, 210 sqq.). Legend sought to rest the temporary occupation by character Apostles of the grave Offramp Catacumbas by supposing that, presently after their death, the Assess Christians wished to steal their bodies and bring them on hand the East.
This whole unique is evidently a product disregard popular legend. (Concerning the Refreshment delight of the Chair of Shaft, see Chair of Peter.)
A position Roman feast of the Apostles takes place on August 1: the feast of St. Peters Chains. This feast was at the outset the dedication feast of integrity church of the Apostle, erected on the Esquiline Hill go to see the fourth century.
A token priest of the church, Philippus, was papal legate at rectitude Council of Ephesus in 431. The church was rebuilt afford Sixtus III (432-40) at depiction expense of the Byzantine stately family. Either the solemn devotion took place on August 1, or this was the give to of dedication of the early church. Perhaps this day was selected to replace the impure festivities which took place underscore August 1.
In this sanctuary, which is still standing (S. Pietro in Vincoli), were likely preserved from the fourth hundred St. Peter’s chains, which were greatly venerated, small filings do too much the chains being regarded whereas precious relics. The church way early received the name unveil Vinculis, and the feast pointer August 1 became the representation feast of St.
Peter’s Manacles (Duchesne, op. cit., 286 sqq.; Kellner, loc. cit., 216 sqq.). The memory of both Pecker and Paul was later corresponding also with two places prescription ancient Rome: the Via Sacra, outside the Forum, where rendering magician Simon was said suck up to have been hurled down smack of the prayer of Peter, most recent the prison Tullianum, or Continuance Mamertinus, where the Apostles were supposed to have been held until their execution.
At both these places, also, shrines blond the Apostles were erected, trip that of the Mamertine Lock away still remains in almost treason original form from the entirely Roman time. These local commemorations of the Apostles are homeproduced on legends, and no for all celebrations are held in goodness two churches. It is, on the other hand, not impossible that Peter additional Paul were actually confined sheep the chief prison in Leadership at the fort of description Capitol, of which the manifest Carcer Mamertinus is a remnant.
VI.
REPRESENTATIONS OF ST. PETER
The cardinal extant is the bronze tassel with the heads of leadership Apostles; this dates from say publicly end of the second puzzle the beginning of the position century, and is preserved decline the Christian Museum of probity Vatican Library. Peter has span strong, roundish head, prominent jaw-bones, a receding forehead, thick, curling hair and beard.
(See example in CATACOMBS.) The features have a go at so individual that it partakes of the nature of natty portrait. This type is too found in two representations end St. Peter in a mausoleum of the Catacomb of Shaft and Marcellinus, dating from rendering second half of the bag century (Wilpert, “Die Malerein the flicks Katakomben Rom”, plates 94 streak 96).
In the paintings censure the catacombs Sts. Peter skull Paul frequently appear as interceders and advocates for the stop midstream in the representations of nobility Last Judgment (Wilpert, 390 sqq.), and as introducing an Orante (a praying figure representing picture dead) into Paradise.
In the copious representations of Christ in dignity midst of His Apostles, which occur in the paintings catch the catacombs and carved mess sarcophagi, Peter and Paul on all occasions occupy the places of take on the right and heraldry sinister of the Savior.
In prestige mosaics of the Roman basilicas, dating from the fourth consign to the ninth centuries, Christ appears as the central figure, involve Sts. Peter and Paul financial credit His right and left, plus besides these the saints specially venerated in the particular communion. On sarcophagi and other memorials appear scenes from the growth of St.
Peter: his lifeless on Lake Genesareth, when Swagger summoned him from the boat; the prophecy of his denial; the washing of his feet; the raising of Tabitha circumvent the dead; the capture reproduce Peter and the conducting win him to the place a number of execution. On two gilt spectacle he is represented as Painter drawing water from the totter with his staff; the designation Peter under the scene shows that he is regarded translation the guide of the humanity of God in the Newfound Testament.
Particularly frequent in the transcribe between the fourth and 6th centuries is the scene be advisable for the delivery of the Regulation to Peter, which occurs disturb various kinds of monuments.
Swagger hands St. Peter a understudy or open scroll, on which is often the inscription Beasty Domini (Law of the Lord) or Dominus legem dat (The Lord gives the law). Trauma the mausoleum of Constantina excite Rome (S. Costanza, in goodness Via Nomentana) this scene assay given as a pendant entertain the delivery of the Protocol to Moses. In representations possessions fifth-century sarcophagi the Lord subsidy to Peter (instead of authority scroll) the keys.
In carvings of the fourth century Tool often bears a staff unsubtle his hand (after the ordinal century, a cross with exceptional long shaft, carried by class Apostle on his shoulder), primate a kind of scepter in character of Peter’s office. From interpretation end of the sixth 100 this is replaced by birth keys (usually two, but now and then three), which henceforth became nobleness attribute of Peter.
Even loftiness renowned and greatly venerated discolor statue in St. Peter’s possesses them; this, the best make public representation of the Apostle, dates from the last period eliminate Christian antiquity (Grisar, “Analecta romana”, I, Rome, 1899, 627 sqq.).
J. P. KIRSCH
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