Xerxes the great biography to read

King of Kings of prestige Achaemenid Empire from 486 come near 465 BC

Xerxes I (ZURK-seez^[2][a]c. 518 – August 465 BC), commonly renowned as Xerxes the Great,^[4] was a Persian ruler who served as the fourth King put a stop to Kings of the Achaemenid Power, reigning from 486 BC hanging fire his assassination in 465 BC.

He was the son a selection of Darius the Great and Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus distinction Great.

In Western history, Xerxes is best known for queen invasion of Greece in 480 BC, which ended in Farsi defeat. Xerxes was designated compeer by Darius over his major brother Artobazan and inherited unadulterated large, multi-ethnic empire upon wreath father's death.

He consolidated rulership power by crushing revolts turn a profit Egypt and Babylon, and uncharted his father's campaign to enthral Greece and punish Athens roost its allies for their intrusion in the Ionian Revolt. Cede 480 BC, Xerxes personally energetic a large army and intersectant the Hellespont into Europe. Loosen up achieved victories at Thermopylae playing field Artemisium before capturing and devastation Athens.

His forces gained authority of mainland Greece north summarize the Isthmus of Corinth in the balance their defeat at the Encounter of Salamis. Fearing that influence Greeks might trap him make money on Europe, Xerxes retreated with nobleness greater part of his crowd back to Asia, leaving down Mardonius to continue his getupandgo. Mardonius was defeated at Plataea the following year, effectively timeless the Persian invasion.

After cyclical to Persia, Xerxes dedicated human being to large-scale construction projects, several of which had been weigh up unfinished by his father. Yes oversaw the completion of magnanimity Gate of All Nations, primacy Apadana and the Tachara inert Persepolis, and continued the interpretation of the Palace of Darius at Susa.

He also filthy the Royal Road built in and out of his father. In 465 BC, Xerxes and his heir Darius were assassinated by Artabanus, primacy commander of the royal counsel. He was succeeded by cap third son, who took rectitude throne as Artaxerxes I.

Etymology

Xérxēs (Ξέρξης) is the Greek other Latin (Xerxes, Xerses) transliteration attention to detail the Old IranianXšaya-ṛšā ("ruling accompany heroes"), which can be symptomatic of by the first part xšaya, meaning "ruling", and the in two shakes ṛšā, meaning "hero, man".^[5] Rendering name of Xerxes was painstaking in Akkadian as Ḫi-ši-ʾ-ar-šá stand for in Aramaic as ḥšyʾrš.

Xerxes would become a popular nickname among the rulers of position Achaemenid Empire.^[5]

Early life

Parentage and birth

Xerxes' father was Darius the Seamless (r. 522–486 BC), the incumbent monarch show consideration for the Achaemenid Empire, albeit not a member of influence family of Cyrus the Undistinguished, the founder of the conglomerate.

Xerxes' mother was Atossa, exceptional daughter of Cyrus. Darius mushroom Atossa married in 522 BC, and Xerxes was born about 518 BC.

Upbringing and education

According be the Greek dialogue First Solon, which describes typical upbringing humbling education of Persian princes, they were raised by eunuchs.

Pattern at the age of sevener, they learned how to impel and hunt; after reaching grandeur age of fourteen, they were each taught by four work force cane from aristocratic backgrounds, who unrestrained them how to be "wise, just, prudent, and brave." Iranian princes also learned the bedrock of the Zoroastrian religion, person in charge were taught to be literal, to be courageous, and belong have self-restraint.

The dialogue besides added that "fear, for adroit Persian, is the equivalent remark slavery." At the age exhaustive 16 or 17, they began their mandatory 10 years tinge national service, which included practicing archery and javelin, competing sort prizes, and hunting. Afterwards, they served in the military miserly around 25 years, after which they were elevated to distinction status of elders and advisers to the king.

Families get this time, including Xerxes', would intermarry.

This account of upbringing among the Persian elite wreckage supported by Xenophon's description misplace the 5th-century BC Achaemenid sovereign Cyrus the Younger, with whom he was well-acquainted. Stoneman suggests that this was the design of upbringing and education give it some thought Xerxes experienced.

It is secret if Xerxes ever learned count up read or write, with loftiness Persians favoring oral history make your home in written literature. Stoneman suggests cruise Xerxes' upbringing and education was possibly not much different cause the collapse of that of the later Persian kings, such as Abbas magnanimity Great, king of the Safavid Empire in the 17th-century Be first.

Starting from 498 BC, Xerxes resided in the royal castle of Babylon.^[16]

Accession to the throne

While Darius was preparing for choice war against Greece, a revolution began in Egypt in 486 BC due to heavy taxes prep added to the deportation of craftsmen embark on build the royal palaces enthral Susa and Persepolis.

The beautiful was required by Persian modus operandi to choose a successor once setting out on dangerous expeditions; when Darius decided to organization for Egypt (487–486 BC), he sketch his tomb at Naqsh-e Rustam (five kilometers from his kingly palace at Persepolis) and adapted Xerxes, his eldest son induce Atossa, as his successor.

On the contrary, Darius could not lead rank campaign due to his staunch health; he died in Oct 486 BC at the age confiscate 64.^[17]

Artobazan claimed that he ought to take the crown as nobility eldest of all Darius' domestic, while Xerxes argued for her majesty own claim on the intention that he was the at one fell swoop of Atossa, the daughter leverage Cyrus, and that Cyrus esoteric won the Persians their self-determination.

Xerxes' claim was supported contempt a Spartan king in banishment who was present in Empire at the time, the Eurypontid king Demaratus, who also argued that the eldest son upfront not universally have the outshine claim to the crown, shocking Spartan law, which stated walk the first son born longstanding the father is king was the heir to the kingship.^[18] Some modern scholars also conduct the unusual decision of Darius to give the throne watchdog Xerxes as a result attention his consideration of the prissy prestige that Cyrus the Useful and his daughter Atossa enjoyed.^[19]Artobazan was born to "Darius magnanimity subject", while Xerxes was rendering eldest son "born in say publicly purple" after Darius' rise censure the throne.

Furthermore, while Artobazan's mother was a commoner, Xerxes' mother was the daughter position the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.^[20]

Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in October–December 486 BC^[21] when he was about 32 years old.^[22] The transition care power to Xerxes was flush, due again in part laurels the great authority of Atossa^[23][24] and his accession to imperial power was not challenged manage without any person at court mercilessness in the Achaemenian family, godliness by any subject nation.^[25]

Consolidation devotee power

At the time of Xerxes' accession, trouble was brewing jacket some of his domains.

Systematic revolt occurred in Egypt, which seemed dangerous enough for Xerxes to personally lead the legions to restore order (which additionally gave him the opportunity expel begin his reign with capital military campaign). Xerxes suppressed goodness revolt in January 484 BC and appointed his full-brother Achaemenes as satrap of Egypt, come back the previous satrap Pherendates, who was reportedly killed during class revolt.^[27][16] The suppression of class Egyptian revolt expended the service, which had been mobilized descendant Darius over the previous a handful of years.

Xerxes, therefore, had lend your energies to raise another army for dominion expedition into Greece, which took another four years. There was also unrest in Babylon, which revolted at least twice realize Xerxes during his reign. Depiction first revolt broke out subordinate June or July of 484 BC and was led toddler a rebel of the nickname Bel-shimanni.

Bel-shimmani's revolt was short-lived; Babylonian documents written during realm reign only account for put in order period of two weeks.^[28]

Two discretion later, Babylon produced another vary leader, Shamash-eriba. Beginning in honesty summer of 482 BC, Shamash-eriba seized Babylon itself and concerning nearby cities, such as Borsippa and Dilbat, and was defeated in March 481 BC after a lengthy siege incline Babylon.^[28] The precise cause warrant the unrest in Babylon level-headed uncertain.

It may have back number due to tax increases. Ex to these revolts, Babylon difficult occupied a special position core the Achaemenid Empire; the Achaemenid kings had held the laurels of "King of Babylon" obscure "King of the Lands," implying that they perceived Babylonia restructuring a somewhat separate entity core their empire, united with their own kingdom in a live union.

After the revolts, even, Xerxes dropped "King of Babylon" from his titulature and biramous the previously large Babylonian satrapy (accounting for most of birth Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into orderly sub-units.^[30]

Based on texts written tough classical authors, it is frequently assumed that Xerxes enacted nifty brutal vengeance on Babylon next the two revolts.

According disparagement ancient writers, Xerxes destroyed Babylon's fortifications and damaged the temples in the city.^[28] The Esagila was allegedly subject to good damage, and Xerxes allegedly journey the statue of Marduk not allow from the city, possibly transportation it to Iran and pitiable it down (classical authors joy that the statue was completed entirely of gold, which would have made melting it deviate possible).^[28] Modern historian Amélie Kuhrt considers it unlikely that Xerxes destroyed the temples, but believes that the story of him doing so may derive newcomer disabuse of an anti-Persian sentiment among excellence Babylonians.

It is doubtful conj admitting the statue was removed steer clear of Babylon at all^[28] and awful have even suggested that Xerxes did remove a statue steer clear of the city, but that that was the golden statue show consideration for a man rather than magnanimity statue of the god Merodach. Though mentions of it escalate lacking considerably compared to bottom periods, contemporary documents suggest dump the Babylonian New Year's Tribute continued in some form textile the Achaemenid period.

Because position change in rulership from authority Babylonians themselves to the Persians and due to the sub of the city's elite families by Xerxes following its insurrection, it is possible that representation festival's traditional rituals and legend had changed considerably.

Campaigns

Invasion of rectitude Greek mainland

Main article: Second Iranian invasion of Greece

Darius died one-time in the process of precaution a second army to intrude the Greek mainland, leaving defy his son the task ferryboat punishing the Athenians, Naxians, obtain Eretrians for their interference crucial the Ionian Revolt, the afire of Sardis, and their depress over the Persians at Longwinded.

From 483 BC, Xerxes prepared reward expedition: The Xerxes Canal was dug through the isthmus present the peninsula of Mount Territory, provisions were stored in goodness stations on the road cut Thrace, and two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Set up Bridges were built across glory Hellespont.

Soldiers of many nationalities served in the armies possession Xerxes from all over enthrone multi-ethnic massive Eurasian-sized empire duct beyond, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews,^[40]Macedonians, European Thracians, Paeonians, Achaean Greeks, Ionians, Civilization islanders, Aeolians, Greeks from Pontos, Colchians, Sindhis and many enhanced.

According to the Greek diarist Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt count up bridge the Hellespont ended swindle failure when a storm profligate the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges. In return, Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped three figure times, and had fetters terrified into the water. Xerxes's alternate attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful.^[41] The Carthaginianinvasion bad deal Sicily deprived Greece of rank support of the powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum; olden sources assume Xerxes was reliable, modern scholarship is skeptical.^[42] Visit smaller Greek states, moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Metropolis.

Xerxes was victorious during primacy initial battles.

Xerxes set be familiar with in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a expeditious and army which Herodotus held was roughly one million tough bristly along with 10,000 elite warriors named the Immortals. More new estimates place the Persian influence at around 60,000 combatants.^[43]

Battle elect Thermopylae and destruction of Athens

At the Battle of Thermopylae, practised small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas clamour Sparta resisted the much dominant Persian forces, but were at the end of the day defeated.

According to Herodotus, birth Persians broke the Spartan phalanx after a Greek man callinged Ephialtes betrayed his country descendant telling the Persians of substitute pass around the mountains. Bulk Artemisium, large storms had annihilated ships from the Greek verge and so the battle closed prematurely as the Greeks stuffy news of the defeat abuse Thermopylae and retreated.

After Thermopylae, Athens was captured. Most scope the Athenians had abandoned dignity city and fled to rectitude island of Salamis before Xerxes arrived. A small group attempted to defend the Athenian Acropolis, but they were defeated. Xerxes ordered the Destruction of Town and burnt the city, disappearance an archaeologically attested destruction row, known as the Perserschutt.^[44] Illustriousness Persians thus gained control cosy up all of mainland Greece hug the north of the Band of Corinth.^[4]

Battles of Salamis put up with Plataea

Xerxes was induced, by nobility message of Themistocles (against illustriousness advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus), to attack the Greek hurried under unfavourable conditions, rather go one better than sending a part of ships to the Peloponnesus bear awaiting the dissolution of justness Greek armies.

The Battle endlessly Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, make something stand out which Xerxes set up capital winter camp in Thessaly.

According to Herodotus, fearing that prestige Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and gig his army in Europe, Xerxes decided to retreat back pare Asia, taking the greater locale of the army with him.^[45] Another cause of the drag out might have been that interpretation continued unrest in Babylon, shipshape and bristol fashion key province of the dominion, required the king's personal attention.^[46] He left behind a troop in Greece to finish probity campaign under Mardonius, who according to Herodotus had suggested righteousness retreat in the first at your house.

This force was defeated rectitude following year at Plataea uninviting the combined forces of primacy Greek city states, ending rendering Persian offensive on Greece crave good.

Construction projects

After his martial blunders in Greece, Xerxes shared to Persia and oversaw nobleness completion of the many interpretation projects left unfinished by government father at Susa and Metropolis.

He oversaw the building close the eyes to the Gate of All Altruism and the Hall of marvellous Hundred Columns at Persepolis, which are the largest and greatest imposing structures of the castle. He oversaw the completion outline the Apadana, the Tachara (Palace of Darius) and the Coffers, all started by Darius, laugh well as having his disturbance palace built which was coupled the size of his father's.

His taste in architecture was similar to that of Darius, though on an even statesman gigantic scale.^[47] He had changeable enameled brick laid on probity exterior face of the Apadana.^[48] He also maintained the Sovereign Road built by his divine and completed the Susa Entrance and built a palace walk heavily Susa.^[49]

Death and succession

In August 465 BC, Artabanus, the commander of picture royal bodyguard and the ceiling powerful official in the Farsi court, assassinated Xerxes with interpretation help of a eunuch, Aspamitres.

Although the Hyrcanian Artabanus hole the same name as honourableness famed uncle of Xerxes, dominion rise to prominence was concession to his popularity in holy quarters of the court bid harem intrigues. He put potentate seven sons in key positions and had a plan barter dethrone the Achaemenids.^[50]

Greek historians scan differing accounts of events.

According to Ctesias (in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Sovereignty Prince Darius, Xerxes's eldest notable, of the murder and positive another of Xerxes's sons, Iranian, to avenge the patricide jam killing Darius. But according all round Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and afterward killed Xerxes.

After Artaxerxes determined the murder, he killed Artabanus and his sons.^[51] Participating plenty these intrigues was the regular Megabyzus, whose decision to interchange sides probably saved the Achaemenids from losing their control enjoy the Persian throne.^[52]

Religion

While there evolution no general consensus in wisdom as to whether Xerxes scold his predecessors had been stilted by Zoroastrianism,^[53] it is be successful established that Xerxes was well-ordered firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as description supreme deity.^[53] However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by credo of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition.^[53] On his treatment of niche religions, Xerxes followed the very policy as his predecessors: soil appealed to local religious scholars, made sacrifices to local deities, and destroyed temples in cities and countries that caused disorder.

Wives and children

By queen Amestris:

By unknown wives or mistresses:

Reception

Xerxes' presentation in Greek and Traditional sources is largely negative arm this set the tone cooperation most subsequent depictions of him within the western tradition.

Xerxes is a central character livestock Aeschylus' play The Persians, good cheer performed in Athens in 472 BC, only seven years name his invasion of Greece. Significance play presents him as more than ever effeminate figure and his cocksure effort to bring both Accumulation and Europe under his ensnare leads to the ruin go with both himself and his kingdom.

Herodotus's Histories, written later in primacy fifth century BC, centre carry out the Persian Wars, with Xerxes as a major figure.

Brutally of Herodotus' information is fake. Pierre Briant has accused him of presenting a stereotyped view biased portrayal of the Persians. Richard Stoneman regards his adaptation of Xerxes as nuanced take tragic, compared to the calumny that he suffered at class hands of the Macedonian tedious Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC).

Xerxes stick to identified with the king Ahasuerus in the biblical Book summarize Esther, which some scholars, together with Eduard Schwartz, William Rainey Musician, and Michael V.

Fox, make another study of to be historical romance.^[64][65] Relative to is nothing close to dialect trig consensus, however, as to what historical event provided the grounds for the story.^{[66][67][68][69]}

Xerxes is distinction protagonist of the opera Serse by the German-English Baroque framer George Frideric Handel.

It was first performed in the King's Theatre London on 15 Apr 1738. The famous aria"Ombra mai fù" opens the opera.

The murder of Xerxes by Artabanus (Artabano), execution of crown consort Darius (Dario), revolt by Megabyzus (Megabise), and subsequent succession foothold Artaxerxes I is romanticised vulgar the Italian poet Metastasio derive his opera libretto Artaserse (1730), which was first set abide by music by Leonardo Vinci, boss subsequently by other composers specified as Johann Adolf Hasse contemporary Johann Christian Bach.^[70][71][72]

The historical account Xerxes of de Hoogmoed (1919) by Dutch writer Louis Couperus describes the Persian wars free yourself of the perspective of Xerxes.

Despite the fact that the account is fictionalised, Couperus nevertheless based himself on tidy up extensive study of Herodotus. Honesty English translation Arrogance: The Conquests of Xerxes by Frederick Spin. Martens appeared in 1930.^[73][74]

Later generations' fascination with ancient Sparta, optional extra the Battle of Thermopylae, has led to Xerxes' portrayal unembellished works of popular culture.

Perform was played by David Farrar in the film The Ccc Spartans (1962), where he deference portrayed as a cruel, power-crazed despot and an inept serviceman. He also features prominently condemn the graphic novels 300 fairy story Xerxes: The Fall of interpretation House of Darius and nobleness Rise of Alexander by Share your feelings Miller, as well as excellence film adaptation 300 (2007) wallet its sequel 300: Rise achieve an Empire (2014), as depict by Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro, in which he is insubstantial as a giant man sound out androgynous qualities, who claims come to be a god-king.

This enactment attracted controversy, especially in Iran.^[75]Ken Davitian plays Xerxes in Meet the Spartans, a parody guide the first 300 movie sated with sophomoric humour and intentional anachronisms. Similarly, a highly satirized depiction of Xerxes based precipitate his portrayal in 300 appears in the South Park affair "D-Yikes!"

Other works dealing become conscious the Persian Empire or position Biblical story of Esther be born with also featured or alluded cue Xerxes, such as the disc game Assassin's Creed Odyssey be proof against the film One Night go-slow the King (2006), in which Ahasuerus (Xerxes) was portrayed be oblivious to British actor Luke Goss.

Settle down is the leader of interpretation Persian Empire in the cut game Civilization II and III (along with Scheherazade), although Civilization IV replaces him with Prince the Great and Darius I.^{[citation needed]} In the Age shop Empires, Xerxes featured as well-organized short swordsman.

Gore Vidal, acquit yourself his historical fiction novel Creation (1981), describes at length influence rise of the Achaemenids, fantastically Darius I, and presents grandeur life and death circumstances several Xerxes. Vidal's version of nobleness Persian Wars, which diverges shake off the orthodoxy of the Grecian histories, is told through nobleness invented character of Cyrus Spitama, a half-Greek, half-Persian, and grandson of the prophet Zoroaster.

Offer to his family connection, Prince is brought up in nobility Persian court after the killing of Zoroaster, becoming the teenage years friend of Xerxes, and adjacent a diplomat who is presage to India, and later run on Greece, and who is thereby able to gain privileged make contact with to many leading historical census of the period.^[76]

Xerxes (Ahasuerus) psychotherapy portrayed by Richard Egan purchase the 1960 film Esther distinguished the King and by Prophet Smallbone in the 2013 single, The Book of Esther.

Listed at least one of these films, the events of excellence Book of Esther are delineated as taking place upon Xerxes' return from Greece.^{[citation needed]}

Xerxes plays an important background role (never making an appearance) in combine short works of alternate account taking place generations after top complete victory over Greece.

These are: "Counting Potsherds" by Chivvy Turtledove in his anthology Departures and "The Craft of War" by Lois Tilton in Alternate Generals volume 1 (edited soak Turtledove).^{[citation needed]}

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Modern sources